我们结婚太艰难！但是我们要结婚了，偶然中的必然，必然中的偶然，无论你怎么说，今年的8月28日，农历七月二十八，我们将举行婚礼，很传统的那一种。虽然我不是很喜欢这种方式，但是我必须尊重她和她的家人所选择的方式。这是一种让双方家人都很累的方式，但是我们无法回避！

想结婚，就得这么来！父母都是为了自己的孩子将来能过的很好。虽然现在我们家很难很难，但是为了结婚，我又得让父母为难了！真是很不孝顺！我不知道是不是男方钱花的多就能让女方觉得体面，但现实就是这样。虽然从数字上看不是很多，就两万，但是我父母是拿不出来的，唯一的途径就是借。我真的不想逼他们。他们已经为我们付出了太多太多，我真的没有脸去向他们要。我曾经发誓结婚的事情不让父母为难，不让父母出钱，可是现在我自己真的没有能力出那么多。

我不知道自己做的对不对，但是现在的境遇让我很尴尬。我方才给爸爸去了短信，说明了情况，现在还没有收到回信。我知道他们很心急，家里的全部积蓄只有一万二。加上我的也不够。我知道爸妈也是个要强的人，很少伸手向别人借钱。再说我的亲戚也都不是那么的乐善好借。现在的我真的成了罪人。

每每想到此，我就会心里很难受。我并不怀疑盈盈的为人，但是我也知道她并没有超脱俗世，我自己也是这样。我自己可以什么都不要，过自己想要的生活，但我没有权力去要求别人跟我一样做。也不可能这样！

双方都觉得现在结婚太过仓促，这是事实！我自己还无力支撑起一个家庭，因此不得不想父母求助，可是父母呢，他们又能向谁求助呢？希望我们能度过这一关！我只想这样说，父母为我做的，我一定会加倍奉还！

    在我们这个星球上，日本是最善长学习并接纳外来先进文明的国家。现代日本文明究其实是汉唐帝国文明和西洋文明的复制品。一个处于蛮荒状态的草昧民族，就因为虚心学习接纳当时世界最先进的文明成果，跃升为这个星球上的一等民族，超过中国老师成为世界第二大经济文化巨人。

日本民族在学习外来先进文明的过程中，不但能做到虚心诚恳全心全意。而且能很好的结合本民族的特点，尤其是融合本民族的文明优势，结果日本能够“青出于蓝而胜于蓝”，在很多方面超越他的老师。

和日本民族相反，中华民族对待外来先进文明的态度是深闭固拒妄自尊大，实在无法排拒时就采取“拿来主义”，摄取形式排泄内容；同时用“民族劣根性”对外来文明进行“筛选”，能够适应“中国特色”者才能“为我所用”。因此外来文明进入中国后大多变得不伦不类，往往徒具外在形式而失去精神内赅。一个典型例子是自掘坟墓的满清政府在进入墓门的前一年为了缓解内外危机，仿效欧洲政府建立“责任内阁”，可内阁的十三名成员中居然有九人来自“皇族”？

当“西方文明”不能按中国人的期望值解决中国的“传统问题”时，我们就很容易简单地把过错推到“西方文明”身上，丝毫也意识不到问题的根源不是我们引进的“西方文明”；而是“传统文明”的惯性作用，是我们对西方文明的“悲剧性误读”。

下面列举几条最具代表性的“我们对西方文明的误读”:

一、 性开放。

上世纪七十年代前的中国性观念异常保守，“性”一度成为民众谈虎色变的话题。除了伟大领袖一人外，民众必须奉行“禁欲主义”，性行为机械化政治化。改革开放以后，西方的“性开放”理念被饥渴的国民以最大的热情全盘接受并发扬光大，甚至于比西方走得更远更离谱。

下面几则众所周知的“西洋传闻”最能体现中国人对西方“性开放”的理解。

传闻一:美国女中学生在上学前，母亲总要提醒她别忘了带“避孕套”……

传闻二:美国夫妻不干涉对方的“性自由”，双方在外面都有一个或多个情人。丈夫回家撞见妻子和情人做爱，多半选择礼貌地退出来……

传闻三:美国的海滨浴场，男女全都一丝不挂……

中国的“极端女权主义者”甚至杜撰出这样一个版本:妻子出门时丈夫都要提醒她别忘了带“避孕套”，告诫她若遇上色狼千万不要反抗，因为“生命”比“贞操”更重要；但和色狼做爱时别忘了戴上“避孕套”，因为“生命”离不开“健康”……

如果美国人听到上述几则关于他们的“性开放传闻”，震惊程度应该不下于听到“911”恐怖袭击消息。传闻中的他们不是和动物没有任何分别吗？他们的“人性尊严”哪里去了？

我们对美国的“性开放”确然存在严重的误读。

首先美国的“性开放”只存在“特定地点”和“特定群体”；主流社会的“性观念”则远比我们保守，大众传媒和公共场所也远比我们“干净”。

美国是一个奉行自由主义的国家，政府和多数人不能随意剥夺“少数群体”不触犯法律的爱好和行为。所以美国有专为部分追求性刺激的成年人开设的 “成人俱乐部”；“回归自然派”男女还可在远离公众的海滩一丝不挂裸浴；“好莱坞”影星也可追求“私生活丰富多彩”……但这些“性开放”把戏只限于“特定群体”和“特定区域”，美国的主流社会则完全是另外一幅景观。美国的公共场所根本看不到涉及色情的宣传广告；我国的色情广告则满天飞，与性相关的影视宣传画和壮阳招贴从大街小巷一直贴到公共厕所。美国的电视也非常干净，连骂人的脏话都被删掉；可我每次旅行到一个县城，在大街上经常能听到录相厅传出的女人高潮时呻吟声。象纽约这样的海岸国际大都市，因为外来人口较多，外来文明占很大比重，性保守倾向还不十分明显；但在主要由美国本土人居住的内地中小城市，美国人则表现得象货真价实的“清教徒”。美国大部分州都禁娼，所有与色情有关的场所都必须在指定的位置，尤其要远离教会、学校。既便如此，他们还时常遭受一些周边居民的抗议。相比之下，我国的色情业不但“丰富多彩”；而且不顾对青少年的影响。我国的星级酒店，小姐进进出出已经成为没有人会因此大惊小怪的正常景观，加之洗头房，洗脚房，卡拉ok，夜总会等诸多色情场所，堪称世界之冠……

当未成年中学生走在大街上，眼中看到宣传画上戴有挑逗性的性感女体和淫秽文字；耳中听到女人高潮人呻吟声，他能不想入非非吗？能不想到去引诱他的女同学吗？如果引诱达不到目的，能不想到实施“性暴力”吗？近几年我国青少年犯罪率直线上升，“性开放”无疑是一个很重要的诱因。

其次美国的婚姻家庭也远非我们想象的那样滥情任性不负责任。美国人在计划结婚之前是有些随便；可一旦结婚就非常清楚自己的责任，家庭始终摆在首位，连工作也得从属家庭，很少结了婚的人还会经常去娱乐场所和别的男女玩浪漫或一人深夜不归泡吧。美国离婚自由，可在婚姻期间大多能对配偶保持基本忠诚，尤其是有一定经济条件和文化教养的绅士阶层更能以身作则。性绯闻不但令政务官吃不消，绅士若是沾上性绯闻也一样会失去社会的尊敬。

再次美国人讲求生命的尊严，甚至于把尊严看得大于生命。所以认定美国女人都会对强奸犯俯首听命是只有“好死不如赖活”的中国人才会相信的无稽之谈。前段时间看到一则网文，写手居然嘲讽一位为保贞操誓死不从歹徒强暴的烈女子，文后还有不少人附和？真的想不到我们的性观念已“开放”到如此荒谬的地步！

二、 金钱选举。

美国的民主制度很健全，总统和和行政区域一把手都是民主直选产生；各级议会也是全民公平普选产生。民选政府的第一职能只能是“为人民服务”，否则民众就会在下次选举中不投他的票或在任期内弹劾罢免他，得罪民众的政务官轻则丢官重则身败名裂。只有极少的傻瓜政务官才会冒着身败名裂的危险去愚弄民众或以权谋私。美国的各级政府都是“民本政府”，绝大多数政务官都有浓厚的“民本思想”，在任期里能尽职尽责，极少腐败渎职现象，个别例外也能很快被发现并受到毫不留情的膺惩。之所以会如此主要是美国选举制度的功劳。一个如此科学理性的选举体制，应该成为文明世界学习仿效的样板，可我们的多数国民却对美国的选举存在很大的误区，在不了解“真相”的情况下就盲目给对方贴上“金钱选举”的标签。

国民之所以容易相信美国的选举是“金钱选举”，一是媒体的误导；二是从电视里看到总统候选人组成庞大的竞选班子一个州一个州去拉选票，没有大量的钱是不行的。在电视普及的时代，赢得选民最便捷的方式就是在黄金时间发表电视讲话。可占用大段电视黄金时间需要花很多钱……所以美国选举需要很多的钱铺路，没有钱在信息社会寸步难行。因此富人很容易用金钱操纵选举，只有富人才能决定选举结果，要么自己直接参加竞选；要么把自己的利益代理人用金钱扶上台？

因为我们不了解美国的选举运作方式，所以很容易形成上面的错觉。美国的竞选机制早就设置了富人用金钱操纵选举的壁垒，在运作方式上使金钱的影响降到了尽可能低的限度。

美国选举确然要花很多的钱，但金钱并不能决定选举结果，富人很难用金钱操纵选举。美国的竞选机制使穷人和富人拥有相对公平的竞选机会，富人在竞选时不但无法发挥金钱的优势，“富人身份”甚至会成为竞选的累赘。美国的历任总统除了肯尼迪一人外极少出身豪富阶层最能说明问题。

美国的总统选举制最能说明美国选举给穷人提供了均等竞选机会:总统选举制规定:对于没有经济实力的总统候选人，国会可以拔给他一笔可观的竞选经费，但很少有候选人愿意领用这笔竞选经费。一则那是纳税人的钱，用纳税人的钱为自己竞选铺路候选人在感情上难以接受；二则总统候选人只要有足够的实力和人望，就能通过正规渠道筹集到必要的竞选经费。

也许有人会问，给候选人提供竞选经费的富人难道不会提出相应的条件，待候选人当上总统后再利用手中职权维护并拓展他们的利益吗？一旦发生上述情况，当选的虽然不是富人总统，可一样只能做富人在政府中的利益代理人？一样是“金钱选举”的另一种表现形式？

上述情况其实在美国很难发生，一是提供竞选经费的美国富人很少会提出“用公权作报偿”的条件，美国富人的情操智商毕竟和中国富人有很大的差别；二是就算个别富人提出那样的条件候选人也作出相应的承诺，当选总统在任期内也没有相应的权力履行自己的承诺。

美国总统在国内的行政经济活动受到司法机关、议会和媒体无孔不入的监督和制约，权力空间极为有限，以权谋私的机会很少。你别看小布什在国际上颐指气使、今天指责这个国家是邪恶轴心，那个国家搞恐怖；明天又制裁伊朗，威胁军事打击北朝鲜，俨然成了地球的家长；但他在国内的权力小得可怜，他的任何行动、每花一分钱都要经过国会批准，没有国会的授权他寸步难行、一筹莫展。地方各级政府都是当地民众直选的，在宪法框架内只对当对民众负责不对总统负责，总统升不了地方行政首长官也降不了他们的官，因此也不可能在地方政府安插亲信或插手政府采购和地方公共工程。美国总统可以把巴拿马总统抓到美国审判，可美国的一个普通市长就可以不买总统的帐。联合国50周年庆典时，纽约市长为各国首脑举行了一场音乐会。音乐会开始前，市长居然把克林顿总统邀请的客人阿拉法特“请”出了剧场，理由是阿乃“恐怖主义分子”，气得克林顿七窍生烟，但也只限于生气而己，对市长的决定他无可奈何，只好自己去道歉……

我国的官僚体制是“一人得道，鸡犬升天”，大官的亲信在下级权力机关和大企业是“抢手货”。美国的情形则刚好相反，政务官的亲属在他的辖地常成为企业避之唯恐不及的对象。因为你一旦任用政务官的亲属，你的公司企业就会成为公众和媒体质疑的焦点，你的一举一动就会暴露于无孔不入的监督之下，这对企业的生存发展是极为不利的。所以美国人一旦当选政务官后，他的亲属很快就会发现自己一夜间成了“二等公民”，不但受到“就业歧视”；还不能享有“完全公民权”，犯同样的错误要比普通人承受更重的处罚。小布什就曾因此深受其害，因为他拥有一个总统父亲，所以“二等公民”的感受格外强烈，心灵上受到很大创伤，并一度处于精神崩溃的边缘，后来因为皈依基督教才在灵魂上获得新生。

在上述境况下，总统能利用公权为竞选捐助人谋求“私人利益”吗？

美国的总统竞选特别讲求“公平原则”，总统候选人无法利用金钱优势来破坏“公平原则”。美国政府和民主、共和两大党都没有受控于自己的电视台和报刊，所有的主流媒体都是私营的。政府和党派无法利用职权来控制“话语权”。不但权力机构无法控制“话语权”，私营电视台也一样必须遵循话语上的“公平原则”。如果哪位总统候选人用金钱买得某电视台的黄金时间段发表电视讲话，该电视台必须在不另收一分钱的情况下让其他总统候选人在同一时间段发表同样长时间的电视讲话，否则该电视台就是违法。这一“公平原则”有效地防止了富人利用金钱优势垄断对公众的“话语权”，先声夺人谋求竞选的优势。

在保障必要竞选经费和“公平原则”下，你能说美国选举是“金钱选举”吗？

三、 个人主义。

西方自由主义的一个显著特征就是“个人主义”；但西方“个人主义”的内涵与中国人的理解有很大的出入。我们是从字面上理解“个人主义”的，既“个人利益第一”？在这种价值取向引导下，西人以“自我”为中心各自为政，为了追求个人利益无视他人利益和国家社会的整体利益……

西方“个人主义”的真正内涵与中国人的理解刚好相反，从本质上来说西方“个人主义”其实是“利他主义”。西方文明强调社会是由单个的生命个体组成的，每个生命个体都不能被社会忽视，都应受到他人和社会的尊重。人们在追求个人利益时，都应尊重他人这个利益实体的存在，不能因为个人利益忽视甚至侵害他人利益。如果社会上的每个人都只注重自身利益而无视他人利益，或者因为集体利益而践踏个人基本权益，这个社会就会陷于自相残害的利益冲突之中，最终每个人的利益都会受到伤害。如果人们在追求自身利益的同时尊重他人利益，不因集体利益践踏个人基本权益，个人利益和社会利益就会和谐统一在一个共生共荣的共同体之下，每个人的利益都会稳步增长……

因为西方文明讲求尊重个体，尊重他人利益，欧美国民特别注重“公德”。“随地吐痰”，“乱扔垃圾”，“在公众场所大声喧哗”和“插队占道”等中国司空见惯的社会景观，在欧美国家很难看到。助人为乐也成为西人习以为常的美德。在英、美、德、法等国，人们在公众场合说得最多的话是“对不起”和“没关系”。一个人遇到不幸时，周围素不相识的国民都会给予真诚帮助……

西方“个人主义”的英文单词是“individualism”。我无法追究最早把individualism翻译成“个人主义”的那个中国人怀着何种动机？这个翻译显然是不准确的，不但不能表达individualism的真实意思，也极容易误导中国人的价值取向。问题是这一有意误导对外国人并无多大损害，主要受害者还是我们中国人自己。

四、 拜金主义。

我们从小就被教导:西方资本主义国家是一个“金钱至上”的社会，人与之间除了赤裸裸的金钱关系外，再也没有其他任何联系了。对金钱的追逐也因此成为一个国家经济向前发展的主要推动力……基于这一认识上的误区，改革开放以后，我们为了学习西方国家的“致富经验”，自然把“挣更多的钱”作为人生的终极奋斗目标。当我们在追逐金钱的过程中造成社会道德普遍下滑，面临群体信仰危机和品格崩溃时，我们才发现“金钱”是一柄双刃剑，能成事也能坏事，奉行赤裸裸的“拜金主义”对一个国家的发展利小弊大。新世纪的今天，当我们再次把目光投向“拜金主义”的始作甬者西方资本主义国家时，才发现美、英、法等国金钱的作用并不是“万能”的，西人对金钱的热情也远远没有达到我们想象的那种程度。我们先前认为西方资本主义国家信奉“拜金主义”是对西方文明的又一悲剧性误读。

当成千上万的中国富翁不惜伤害国家民族的根本利益，用非法手段聚敛巨额财富，肆意挥霍巧取豪夺来的不义之财时，越来越多的中国人知道:多数外国富翁把通过勤劳智慧挣来的正当财富回报社会，晚年把绝大多数甚至全部财富捐给慈善机构或学校。前不久世界首富比尔.盖茨的“裸捐”最能说明问题，他把自己名下580亿美金的巨额财富悉数捐给慈善基金会，没给子孙后代留下一分钱的财富。众所周知比尔.盖茨创建了软件帝国，他的财富是凭借勤劳和超人智慧，掌握先进生产力挣来的合法收益；不象中国的多数超级富翁一样依靠“特权”和“投机”来聚敛非法财富。比尔.盖茨捐献合法财富与我国富翁挥霍并遗传非法财富形成鲜明的对比，从另一个层面折射出我们和西方在金钱面前的态度反差。

当美国的多数富翁在晚年都争相把财富捐出来回报社会时，我们能说这个国家的国民信奉“拜金主义”吗？

如果我们在现代化进程中不巧陷入了“拜金主义”的泥潭，又自认为这是学习西方的结果；难道不是我们对西方文明的悲剧性误读吗？

和西方民主国家相比，专制国家更容易陷入赤裸裸的“拜金主义”。托克维尔在他的论著《旧制度与大革命》中，描述大革命前的法国社会时写道:“在这类社会中，没有什么东西是固定不变的，每个人都苦心焦虑，生怕地位下降，并拼命向上爬；金钱已成为区分贵贱尊卑的主要标志，还具有一种独特的流动性，它不断地易手，改变着个人的处境，使家庭地位升高或降低，因此几乎无人不拼命地攒钱或赚钱。不惜一切代价发财致富的欲望、对商业的嗜好、对物质利益和享受的追求，便成为最普遍的感情。这种感情轻而易举地散布在所有阶级之中，甚至深入到一向与此无缘的阶级中，如果不加以阻止，它很快便会使整个民族萎靡堕落。然而，专制制度从本质上却支持和助长这种感情。”

这是因为在专制社会中，即使经济得到了发展，可是由于继续剥夺了大众参与社会的各种权利，从而将人的生存依然挤压在一个狭小的空间之中。所以对金钱的崇拜，在一个专制国家中，可能比一些民主国家表现的更为极端、强烈和不择手段。正是专制社会对权力的垄断，才无法使它的人民产生对生活更加丰富的情趣，因而他们在金钱欲望上必然要走向一种极端。

…………

去年我在《中华文明体系中的垃圾桶基因》这篇杂文里，曾经说过我们的文明在继承和学习倾向上出了大问题，具体表现在容易吸收外来文明的垃圾和劣势；对外来文明的优势要么深闭固拒，要么令其沾染“中国特色”。

西洋文明成果的最闪亮部分应该是民主、宪政、法治、人权、廉洁政府、新闻自由、任人唯才、公平竞争等……这些先进的文明成果我们要么视而不见；要么在学习借鉴过程中掺和“中国特色”，美味香甜的淮南橘子移植到淮北后变种成又苦又涩的“积子”。最典型的例子莫过于我们的选举，民主选举无疑是从西方学来的，可我们的部分地方政府把选举“改革”成“走过场”的闹剧。当欧美文明国家公正公开“直选”各级行政一把手时；我们依然热衷于“暗箱作业”，预先圈定候选人，甚至于搞什么“铁定当选”的“等额选举”（候选人只有一个）？

我们在排斥或扭曲西洋文明先进成果的同时；又以不可思议的热情接纳了西洋文明的暗点。不但全盘吸收了对方的暗点；还利用我们的“聪明才智”把暗点发扬光大。西洋文明最典型的暗点莫于过“性开放”，我们不但学来了，还“青出于蓝而胜于蓝”。今天美国的离婚率只有百分之八，我们则逼近百分之二十。美国的政务官在任期内不得有绯闻；我们的地方权力人物则热衷于“包二奶”。美国离婚自由但绝大多数配偶能作到基本的忠诚，我们的婚外恋则成为时尚，有条件者多想试一试……

当我们感到外来文明的“垃圾”供不应求时，我们就以己之心度人之腹，对外来文明进行有意识的“误读”和“加工”，给自己的文明暗点贴上外来文明的标签。明明自己信奉“金钱万能”，偏要说美国是一个“金钱至上”的国家。明明自己自私自利一盘散沙，偏要把西方文明的“利他主义”误读为狭隘自私的“个人主义”……

我们的文明向何处去？

天佑中华！！！

雅虎博客上有这样一个帖子：

“北大清华沦落为二流大学了吗？

周瑜

继北京高考文科状元丁艺莎明确选择港大后，理科状元胡梦萦在“遮遮掩掩”当中最终投奔港大怀抱。由此一来，今年本市文理科头名状元均放弃北大、清华而选择港大。到目前为止，据说今年内地各省市共6名高考头名状元进入港大录取名单。

几年前，就有人为香港各大学到大陆招生一事写了篇叫做《香港的大学将把北大清华扫为二流》的文章，一时间舆论哗然。当时，有人十分不屑地把香港形容为殖民地文化或文化沙漠,认为根本没有资格和北大清华相提并论。如今，港大的吸引力显然已经领先，难道香港的大学真的要把北大清华扫为二流大学吗？

港大的教育理念显然已经走到前面去了。该不该在活的动物身上做实验？建鸟巢是否太浪费材料？星巴克该不该进故宫？港大面试主题涉及很多社会问题和“敏感话题”，让考生觉得匪夷所思，不过又觉得“考题很有趣”，“很猛很敏感”。而港台大的考官又表示：“观点是什么不要紧，港大最看重的是现场表现。”“想通过这些问题考察学生的反应能力、是否全面发展，以及对人生未来的规划情况。”北大清华都举行了自主招生考试，但考的内容依然逃不脱语数外成绩，实际上是先预筛一遍，以便选取更多的高分考生。

办学理念上有差距也就罢了，北大清华竟也放下了中国最负盛名的大学的架子，参与到了生源的追逐中，就像两个西装革履却穿梭市井的小贩。去年，重庆文科状元黄文帝就引发了清华大学和北京大学的一次交锋。去年清华大学在重庆本没有文科招生指标，却使用包括物质刺激等在内的各种手段，“勾引”意欲去北大的状元。如果最后不是教育部亲自协调，状元黄文帝还险些无校可读。这桩招生丑闻，已经让名校颜面扫地，也反应了中国名校的是如何的“心虚”。

北大招办负责人表示：“我们的态度一如既往，欢迎所有优秀的学生到北京大学学习，但是学生有自主选择到港澳或国外优秀大学学习的权利。”这样的表态是表现了名校的大度呢，还是无可奈何的酸楚？

有人说港大已经领先了北大清华一个时代，但愿这只是耸人听闻。”

此贴一出，引来许多关心教育的朋友们的关注，纷纷发表评论：

• FANGSU
• 

中国的教育，始终毁在落后的教育体制，特别是在当今教育产业化以后，学校教书育人理念在退化，则重在赚钱，让人匪夷深思。

2008-07-12 21:13:42

• 玩童
• 

北大,清华因解放前的名气而著名.现在已经不著名了.

2008-07-12 21:12:21

• kimy…
• 

去什么学校都一样，关键看能不能学到东西，是否对将来的事业有帮助，名牌学校也不是什么专业都好

2008-07-12 21:08:45

• chen…
• 

在相对的条件下，内地学生选择HK的大学，而HK的学生，又选择了欧美的大学！相当讽刺的事情！

确实，中国当下很多大学都只是传授学识是高校，相当同意三楼的说法。所不同意的是，中国不只现在才出现的应该教育，在很久以前就有了。没有灵魂并不只20世纪80，90年代的人，还有许多前辈，不知三楼是哪个年代的人！80年代和90年代的人看起来确实跟其它年代的人不相同，很不在前辈看来不好形容词都可以放在那一辈人，我也是80年代出生的人，我从来都觉得我是夸掉的一代。我们只是生活在这个新旧交替的时代，这让这辈人很尴尬。或许教育有一定的关系，但并不全都是！我们生活的环境有更大的关系，不是吗？

2008-07-12 21:08:21

• liumin
• 

在国内属一流,在国外只能算二流.

2008-07-12 21:07:15

• 赵东
• 

清华北大被称为一流高校那应该是解放前跟刚解放时的事情了。那时候的老师师德跟实力在国际上都是赫赫有名的。现在的清华北大之所以还被称为一流高校只是沾了那时侯的光而已。且不说老师实力怎样，就师德方面就实在不敢让人恭维。堂堂一个教授竟然跟别人打赌，治学的严谨从何谈起。更有甚着竟然为了一点私利为假虎照做起了伪证，事后还拒不承认，如此态度如何为人师表。也正是因为他们的师德才影响了这些好学生，出国以后就“风萧萧兮易水寒，壮士一去兮不复返”了。

2008-07-12 21:05:09

• 风语者
• 

无语，港大接受了应试教育下的状元生，而我们在批应试教育一文不值

无语，清华北大失去了部分应试教育下的状元生，沦为二流大学

无语，我们都是被应试教育培养起来的，而我们都在鄙视它

无语.........

2008-07-12 20:57:54

• 谢仕红
• 

中国大学一直在毁人不倦,包括所谓的清华北大都是产生垃圾的地方,垃圾的教育系统,垃圾的教育方法,垃圾的教师,然后培养出垃圾学生!!

2008-07-12 20:48:20

在我看来，国内大学的办学理念远远落后于世界主流，我们的教育体制严重落后，我们的学生没有思想，虽然很有理想；没有信仰，虽然整天都在背马列精华思想；我们的北大清华没有了自主性，收进去的都是天之骄子，生产出来的大多都是奴隶——主流思想的奴隶。不知道从什么时候开始我们的教育没有了创新，也培养不出创新型人才，一切的一切都是那么保守和迂腐！教育越来越没有自主性了！

如果说港大可以算得上二流，我们的北大清华根本算不上，最多是三流！

1、【西子】

西子即西施，春秋乱世间越国谋士范蠡之恋人、情人，吴王夫差之姬，中国古代四大美人之一，有“沉鱼”之强力，为千古美女代名词。她违背良心做了一回吴国人民祸国殃民的坏女人。在导致吴国灭亡后，可能与范蠡扁舟隐逸而去，形迹缥缈无考。

2、【毛嫱】

毛嫱，《管子》和《庄子》里都记载过的美女，和西施同时成名。《管子·小称》说：“毛嫱西施，天下之美人也。”《庄子·齐物论》说：“毛嫱、丽姬，人之所美也；鱼见之深入，鸟见之高飞，麋鹿见之决骤，四者孰知天下之正色哉。”

3、【夷光】

夷光，通常认为西施名夷光，但是有的学者认为夷光是越国同时进献给吴国的另外一个奇质美人。明代陈士元《名疑》卷三说：“越以美女西施、郑旦同进于吴。《拾遗记》云：‘越以美女二人贡吴，一名夷光，一名修明。’或云夷光即西施，修明即郑旦也。夷光一作移光。”许多古书把夷光当作西施的间谍同事和共谋，如《太平广记》。

4、【李夫人】

李夫人，汉武帝刘彻最宠幸的皇妃，出身歌妓。她短命的一生牵系着千古中华文化的几个亮点——她是著名诗句“北方有佳人，绝世而独立。一顾倾人城，再顾倾人国”所歌咏的对象，还是“姗姗来迟”这个成语所指的对象，她最出彩的成就是韩非子“色衰爱弛”的理论大实践。她在病中坚决不让汉武帝看见自己的病容，使得他不至于变心，在她死后还关照自己的亲人。

5、【卓文君】

卓文君，西汉时期汉赋代表性作家司马相如的妻子，史上最著名的私奔故事的女主角，也是中国文人千古佳人梦里才子佳人的鼻祖。她是临邛富商卓王孙之女，被许配给一个皇孙。未婚夫未婚而亡，十七岁的处女便成为寡妇。辞赋家兼音乐家的才子司马相如在应邀做客卓家时，以琴曲《凤求凰》挑逗她雪夜私奔，并与穷书生丈夫一起开饮食店，她当垆卖酒，他洗碗刷碟。生米煮成熟饭后，父亲还是资助了自己的生活，而且，丈夫以辞赋天才为汉武帝重用，立下安抚西南少数民族的功劳。她后来经历了丈夫移情别恋、自己不能生育等婚恋风波，分别以《怨郎诗》挽回爱情，以《白头吟》巩固婚姻，终于白头偕老。她是一个才貌双全而敢爱会爱的美女。

6、【班婕妤】

班婕妤，汉成帝刘骜的嫔，赵飞燕、赵合德孪生姐妹的情敌，真名无考，婕妤是标示妃嫔的等级的一个称号。她是贤德与美貌合一的象征，是宠辱不惊的典范，具备作为皇帝的亦师亦友亦妃的综合型魅力，堪称学者型美女！她以博通文史的才华、沧桑跌宕的经历创造了“秋凉团扇”的典故，表达了美女失宠的辛酸心理。她失宠不失格，面对史上最著名的“湛于酒色”的昏君——一个不但好女色而且好男色的帝王，她选择了淡出情场的举措，在长信宫中陪侍太后烧香礼佛。

7、【王昭君】

王昭君，姓王名嫱，史称“明妃”，中国古代四大美人之一，有“落雁”之强力。南郡秭归人，今三峡地区湖北省兴山县昭君村绝世美女，匈奴呼韩邪单于阏氏，她的功绩尽在荣誉称号“宁胡阏氏”，意为匈奴有了汉女作“阏氏”（王妻），安宁有了保障。呼韩邪单于亡故后，按照习俗，嫁给其长子为妻，三十三岁时，香销玉殒，在今内蒙呼和浩特市留下一座“青冢”和五十年的汉匈和好以及两千年的诗文热门话题，王昭君还是三峡成为“诗峡”的一个“诗性因子”，也是最有“戏”的人物，其故事上演在历朝历代的戏剧舞台。

8、【赵飞燕】

赵飞燕，原名宜主，色情狂汉成帝刘骜的婕妤、皇后，班婕妤的情敌，西汉最著名的舞蹈家，从“身轻若燕，能作掌上舞”并且被称为“飞燕”来推断，似乎也是杂技演员，从淫乱的成就来看，她是制作cy的专家。她被指斥为妇德最差的狐狸型美女，因为不能生育，便与妹妹一起谋害汉朝皇嗣，也许是cy效果过猛，不小心弄得汉成帝暴毙，但使得他还断子绝孙却是出于毒辣的嫉妒。

9、【合德】

合德，就是赵合德，赵飞燕的孪生妹妹，汉宫淫乱事业的同道与同事。姐妹两人，一个不宜主，一个不合德，却恰恰叫宜主与合德。

10、【蔡琰】

蔡琰，即蔡文姬，东汉才女，著名诗人，乱世红颜的代表。蔡文姬一生三嫁，初嫁河东世族之子卫仲道，不到一年，卫仲道便因咯血而死。战乱里，她被掠到南匈奴，再嫁，为左王妃十二年。曹操用重金赎回，演绎一场“文姬归汉”的伦理大戏。她最后一个丈夫是曹操部下田校尉董祀。

11、【二乔】

二乔，三国东吴乔玄的两个女儿大乔和小乔。大乔为孙策妻，小乔为周瑜妻，为英雄美人匹配的经典。二乔在“三国演义”的历史大戏里，被诸葛亮用作激怒周瑜的道具：诸葛亮巧改曹植《铜雀台赋》的“桥”为“乔”，原句“连二桥于东西兮，若长空之蝃蝀”（“蝃蝀”为彩虹）被篡改为“揽二乔于东南兮，乐朝夕之与共”，于是，曹操在周瑜眼里就有了图谋二乔美色的野心了，周瑜听信之后，岂能不为爱妻而恨曹操？于是才有赤壁大战曹刘联合破曹的壮举。杜牧的《赤壁》就暗含了这个典故：“折戟沈沙铁未销，自将磨洗认前朝。东风不与周郎便，铜雀春深锁二乔。”

12、【绿珠】

绿珠，西晋豪富官员荆州刺史石崇妾。石崇任职刺史期间，靠派兵丁乔装强盗秘密截杀客商而成巨富，有过对朝中要员贾谧车辆望尘而拜的卑劣人品。但是，爱妾绿珠感恩于石崇，不会考虑其卑劣人品和违法恶行。在他失势之时，通过在“金谷园”跳楼自杀来阻止石崇情敌和政敌对自己美貌的觊觎，企图保护石崇免受牵连。绿珠“以死酬情”，并未挽救石崇生命，但她却永远载入了情史。

13、【碧玉】

碧玉，成语“小家碧玉”的主角，晋代汝南王司马义的妾。孙婥应司马义之请，作有《碧玉歌》两首（据王运熙《汉魏六朝乐府诗评注》）。其一：碧玉小家女，不敢攀贵德。感郎千金意，惭无倾城色。其二：碧玉破瓜时，相为情颠倒。感郎不羞难，回身就郎抱。

14、【张丽华】

张丽华，南朝亡国后主陈叔宝贵妃，地位仅次于皇后。她发长七尺，其光可鉴，神采艳丽，聪慧强记，宠冠后 庭。百司奏事，后主常抱置膝上共决之，遂侍宠弄权，乱纲纪。隋军入，与后主、贵嫔同入宫中景阳井，为隋军擒斩。陈后主著名的亡国之音《玉树后 庭花》里有她美丽而不幸的影子：“……妖姬脸似花含露，玉树流光照后 庭；花开花落不长久，落红满地归寂中！”隋炀帝因未得张丽华而甚为遗憾

15、【侯夫人】

侯夫人，隋炀帝的色情迷楼里一个可能还是处女之身的宫女，以上吊自杀的方式**不得宠幸，深闺寂寞。她死后颜面艳若桃花，美貌异常，臂系锦囊，中藏宫怨诗，引发杨广无限悲伤，令选美失职渎职的宦官自尽，她是历史上少见的死后才得到帝王无限宠爱并且美名、才名俱满天下的美女。侯夫人大约16岁进宫，24岁左右自杀，存诗13首，为初唐四杰先声。

16、【杨太真】

杨太真，即杨贵妃，中国古代四大美人之一，有“羞花“的震撼力。唐玄宗李隆基儿子的寿王李瑁的妃子，婚后五年由李隆基册封为自己的贵妃。她是著名的音乐家、舞蹈家，安史之乱中被挚爱她的人于万般无奈下赐死。据说，她被赐死的时候被调换了，真身偷渡日本。

17、【崔莺莺】

崔莺莺，同一个人，却有两个身份，三种性情，因为，崔莺莺是起源于唐代元稹传奇小说《莺莺传》而进入金代董解元《西厢记诸宫调》和元代王实甫《西厢记》里的现实人物和文学形象，她在文学里活了五百年！于是，有现实里的身份和文学里的身份。现实里的崔莺莺是唐代著名诗人元稹（托名张生）的西厢邂逅恋人，文学里的崔莺莺是虚构的文人张君瑞的妻子；现实里的崔莺莺是个遭遇始乱终弃的可怜官宦小姐，文学里的崔莺莺是个姻缘美满的状元夫人；现实里的崔莺莺是元稹《莺莺传》（即《会真记》）这部成为才子佳人笔记小说鼻祖里的主角，文学里的崔莺莺是董解元和王实甫追求理想爱情和婚姻的形象代言人。人们一般认为，《莺莺传》虽然也是文学作品，但是它写的是现实生活——鲁迅说：“元稹以张生白寓，述其亲历之境……”，而文人们则根据她的传奇来改造她——在董解元那里，她是“从今至古，自是佳人，合配才子”社会理想的代言人，在王实甫的《西厢记》里，她是“生则同衾，死则同穴”纯情理想的代言人。总之，她是个亦实亦虚的美女，现实和传说里都有她的踪迹。

18、【关盼盼】

关盼盼，唐代徐州名伎，徐州守帅张建封妾。白居易做客张建封府上时与她有一宴之交，盛赞：“醉娇胜不得，风袅牡丹花。”据说，她在夫死守节于燕子楼十余年后，白居易作诗批评她只能守节不能殉节，她于是绝食而死。《唐诗纪事》载其事迹。《御定全唐诗》820卷：“关盼盼，徐州妓也，张建封纳之。张殁，独居彭城故燕子楼，历十余年，白居易赠诗讽其死。盼盼得诗泣曰：‘妾非不能死，恐我公有从死之妾，玷清范耳。’乃和白诗，旬日不食而卒，诗四首。”

19、【苏蕙】

苏蕙，东晋女诗人，字若兰，美女中具有兰心蕙性美质者的代言人，“织锦回文”典故的主角，前秦安南将军窦滔妻。《晋书·列女传》载：“……滔，苻坚时为秦州刺史，被徙流沙，苏氏思之，织锦为回文旋图诗以赠滔……凡八百四十字，文多不录。”就是在五彩丝线的织锦上织有八百四十个字，名曰“璇玑图”，纵横反复，可以读出若干诗作。后人习用“织锦回文”指妻子书信，或者赞扬妇女的绝妙才思。

20、【非烟】

非烟，即步非烟，也作步飞烟。唐代咸通年间美女，精通诗文，善击瓯。她是史上反抗彩凤随鸦般“非偶”婚姻的代表，法定丈夫是任河南府功曹参军的武公业，真正爱人是邻居书生赵象。她在与赵象诗文往来中秘密恋爱两年，被丈夫捉奸后坦然而淡然承认了婚外恋：“生既相爱，死亦何恨。”遭到丈夫毒打致死。事迹见于她的同时代人皇甫枚的《三水小牍》，《全唐诗》存其婚外恋诗作四首

21、【柳姬】

柳姬，大历十才子之一中书舍人（类似皇帝的机要秘书）韩翃妻，著名的“章台柳”故事女主角，词牌“章台柳”的缘起人物，章台柳在后世成为形容窈窕美丽女子的代名词。章台柳故事曲折感人，大致情节是，韩翊流寓京师，与托名“李王孙”的豪士交为莫逆，韩翃与李王孙家妓柳姬互爱，李遂将万贯家资与柳氏悉赠韩翃，韩因探亲与安史之乱，与柳姬两地分居。番将沙吒利恃平反有功强占柳氏，韩翊还长安后，郁郁寡欢。一名勇将感韩柳诚挚之爱，纵马入沙吒利府第抢回柳氏，经皇帝斡旋，韩柳夫妻团圆，白头偕老。

22、【霍小玉】

霍小玉，“大历十才子”之一李益的未婚同居女友，“郎才女貌”理想的临时主角，“始乱终弃”遭遇的典型受害者，“痴心女子负心汉”的不幸遭遇者。李益少年及第前后，诗名响彻长安，遍求佳人，两人相见后，同居两年，山盟海誓不分离。李益后来因为家人强迫，娶妻卢氏，对霍小玉狠心割爱，致使她忧恨而死（故事见于唐代蒋房的《霍小玉传》）。李益是著名的边塞诗人，最终的官位高至礼部尚书，但他年轻时有一个严重的毛病：“妒痴”，人们称为“李益疾”（新旧《唐书》），结合小说来看，大约主要是“疑心症”，表现为性猜疑、性妒忌和性虐待，竟然源于霍小玉冤魂的复仇。据小说，李益在霍小玉死后，因为猜忌妻子卢氏而离婚，甚至还妒杀过他的性伴侣——“侍婢媵妾”。

23、贞娘

贞娘，也写作“珍娘”，唐人多写作“真娘”，贞洁的化身。她的事迹在苏州一带的流传是：安史之乱时，她从北方流落苏州，被迫堕入妓院，善歌能诗，才貌出众，为苏州绝色佳丽。一位富有才学，人品端正的人重金贿赠鸨母，欲留宿于真娘处。真娘上吊自尽，以死守身。经查，《全唐诗》录有刘禹锡、白居易、李绅、张祜、沈亚之、李商隐、罗隐等有关贞娘的诗，但贞娘事迹难考，题诗内容空洞，从罗隐“死犹嫌寂寞，生肯不风流”来看，是一位卖艺不卖身的烈女。

24、朱淑真

25、【花蕊夫人】

花蕊夫人，花蕊一样美丽又娇弱的女人却轻声细语出利剑一样刺骨的声音：“君王城上竖降旗，妾在深宫那得知。十四万人齐解甲，更无一个是男儿。”（《述国亡诗》）她的美貌，“花不足以拟其色，蕊差堪状其容”，“冰肌玉骨清无汗，水殿风来暗香满。”她艳惊两朝，既是后蜀孟昶的慧妃，也是宋代宋太祖的妃子，她便同时有了亡国之君和开国之君的两君专宠的荣华，而荣华背后是无尽的辛酸和不幸，她被俘后的身世是一团迷雾。《全唐诗》收录作品一卷，一百多首统一名为《宫词》，一首另名《述国亡诗》。

25、【花蕊夫人】

花蕊夫人，花蕊一样美丽又娇弱的女人却轻声细语出利剑一样刺骨的声音：“君王城上竖降旗，妾在深宫那得知。十四万人齐解甲，更无一个是男儿。”（《述国亡诗》）她的美貌，“花不足以拟其色，蕊差堪状其容”，“冰肌玉骨清无汗，水殿风来暗香满。”她艳惊两朝，既是后蜀孟昶的慧妃，也是宋代宋太祖的妃子，她便同时有了亡国之君和开国之君的两君专宠的荣华，而荣华背后是无尽的辛酸和不幸，她被俘后的身世是一团迷雾。《全唐诗》收录作品一卷，一百多首统一名为《宫词》，一首另名《述国亡诗》。

25、【花蕊夫人】

花蕊夫人，花蕊一样美丽又娇弱的女人却轻声细语出利剑一样刺骨的声音：“君王城上竖降旗，妾在深宫那得知。十四万人齐解甲，更无一个是男儿。”（《述国亡诗》）她的美貌，“花不足以拟其色，蕊差堪状其容”，“冰肌玉骨清无汗，水殿风来暗香满。”她艳惊两朝，既是后蜀孟昶的慧妃，也是宋代宋太祖的妃子，她便同时有了亡国之君和开国之君的两君专宠的荣华，而荣华背后是无尽的辛酸和不幸，她被俘后的身世是一团迷雾。《全唐诗》收录作品一卷，一百多首统一名为《宫词》，一首另名《述国亡诗》。

朱淑真，她的诗作受到市民的激赏，却在死后遭到父母的焚烧（据魏仲恭《断肠诗集序》）。她显然是英年早逝的“问题美女作家”。她的别号是“幽栖居士”，为南宋多情才女和美女，与李清照齐名，有《断肠集》存世。从“鸥鹭鸳鸯作一池，须知羽翼不相宜”（《愁怀》）来看，她的婚姻是不幸的，因此，有些作品泄露了婚外恋情，被一些学者剥夺著作权，包括“月上柳梢头，人约黄昏后”这样的名句著作权也给了男性诗人。但是，她的作品还是存有大胆露骨的香艳镜头：“但愿暂成人缱绻，不妨常任月朦胧”——缠绵于情爱连时间也不管了，“娇痴不怕人猜，和衣睡倒人怀”——犹如今人当街亲吻一般大胆。

25、【花蕊夫人】

花蕊夫人，花蕊一样美丽又娇弱的女人却轻声细语出利剑一样刺骨的声音：“君王城上竖降旗，妾在深宫那得知。十四万人齐解甲，更无一个是男儿。”（《述国亡诗》）她的美貌，“花不足以拟其色，蕊差堪状其容”，“冰肌玉骨清无汗，水殿风来暗香满。”她艳惊两朝，既是后蜀孟昶的慧妃，也是宋代宋太祖的妃子，她便同时有了亡国之君和开国之君的两君专宠的荣华，而荣华背后是无尽的辛酸和不幸，她被俘后的身世是一团迷雾。《全唐诗》收录作品一卷，一百多首统一名为《宫词》，一首另名《述国亡诗》。

考试大纲 examination syllabus

开卷考试 open-book examination

闭卷考试 closed-book examination

小测验 quiz

单元考试 unit exam

阶段考试 period examination

期中考试 mid-term examination

期末/终考试 final examination

学年考试 year-end exmination

毕业考试 graduation examination

口试 oral examination

笔试 written examination

补考 make-up examination

成绩考试 achievement examination

大学入学考试 Matriculation[entrance examination of colleges]

英语水平考试 English Proficiency Test

高等学校英语应用能力考试 Practical English Test for Colleges

全国大学英语四、六级考试 College English Test__Band four/six

高校英语专业四、八级考试 Test for English Major__Band four/eight

托福考试 Test of English as a Foreign Language

（美）研究生入学考试 Graduation Record Examination

美国大学入学考试 American College Testing Program

学术评估考试 Scholastic Assessment Test

能力测验 aptitude test

专业测验 advanced test

考题 examination paper[questions]

出考题 set an examination paper

多线选择题 multiple choices

完形填空 cloze

是非题 true-false[true or false questions]

主考 chief examiner

监考 proctor/invigilator

评分标准 standards of grading

评分 grade papers

学习成绩 academic record

成绩单 school record(report card)

分数 mark/grade

不及格 fail

及格 pass

良好 good

优秀 excellent

office/administration building 办公楼

research activities building 科研楼

teaching/classroom building 教学大楼

lecture hall 阶梯教室

auditorium 大礼堂

dining-room/canteen 食堂

students' dormitory 学生宿舍

sports field/ground 体育场

gym 体育馆

sports center 体育中心

stadium 露天大型运动场

bulletin/notice board 布告栏

library 图书馆

stack room 书库

bookshelf 书架

reading-room 阅览室

periodical reading-room 期刊阅览室

language laboratory 语言实验室

sound lab 语音室

audio-visual room 视听室

multi-media classroom 多媒体教室

overhead projector 投影仪

lantern slide 幻灯片

remote control 遥控器

microphone 话筒

teacher's pointer/teaching stick 教鞭

educational 【school】 system 学制

period of schooling 学习年限

term（BrE.）/semester(AmE.) 学期

school year 学年

record of formal schooling 学历

one's status as a student 学籍

sublevel 预备级

credit 学分

the credit system 学分制

style of study 学风

tuition 学费

scholarship 奖学金

stipend 助学金

further one's studies 深造

study abroad 出国留学

cut a class 旷课

drop out 辍学

quit school 退学

be expelled from school 被学校开除

schedule 课程表

period 学时

syllabus (teaching programme) 教学大纲

teaching plan 教学计划

teaching notes(lesson plan) 教案

teaching method 教学法

classroom teaching 课堂教学

TV education 电视教学

open class 公开课

tutorials 【coaching】辅导课

individual coaching 个别辅导

instructions after class 课外辅导

supplementary lecture 补习课

make-up study [make up a missed lesson] 补课

visit a class 听课

attend each other's lectures 互相听课

outside reading 课外阅读

revision class复习课

general revision 总复习

focal points 教学重点

difficult points 难点

reference material 参考资料

resources for teaching 教学参考资料

amount of work of the teacher 教师工作量

paper 论文

thesis 硕士学位论文

dissertation 博士论文

graduation fied work 毕业实习

graduation project 毕业设计

graduation appraisal 毕业鉴定

commencement [graduation ceremony] 毕业典礼

diploma[graduation certificate] 毕业证书

certificate of merit  奖状

以上内容选自《新编英语课堂教学用语》朱先穆、朱胜超编著 合肥：中国科学技术大学出版社。2005。

1.80.What is an alphabet? What is a syllabary?

An “alphabet” refers to the letters or signs representing speech sounds used in writing a language , arranged in a conventional order. A “syllabary” refers to a set or table or system of written characters representing syllables rather than individual sounds.

1.81.What is a grapheme? What is orthography?

(1)A “grapheme” is the minimal constructive unit in the writing system of a language. The English grapheme A is represented by A,α,a etc.

(2)Orthography means correct spelling, spelling rules or attempts to improve spelling.

1.82.What is reference?

“Reference”, as far as writing is concerned, means that in a sound writing system the graphemes and the phonemes are expected to build up and to keep up co-reference. For instance, the Reference of the English grapheme B generally is “b” and that of the grapheme X is “ks”. The problem with reference is that more than one phoneme can be represented by one single letter or grapheme. The grapheme O, for example, can represent its its different corresponding phonemes as in: so [], money [], together [], sob [].

For reference used in the sense of “sense” or “meaning”, place refer back to 1.64.

1.83.What is affixation, conversion and compounding?

(1)”Affixation” is the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base (root or stem). It has been the oldest and the most productive word-formation method in the English language and some other European languages. “Prefixation” means addition of a prefix to make a new word, while “suffixation” means adding a suffix to a word. The word “unfaithful” is result of both prefixation and suffixation.

(2)“Conversion” (called sometimes “full conversion”) is a word-formation process by which a word is altered from one part of speech into another without the addition (or deletion) of any morpheme. “Partial conversion” is also alteration when a word of one word-class appears in a function which is characteristic of another word-class, e.g., “ the wealthy” (=wealthy people).

(3)”Compounding” is so complex a word-formation process as far as English is concerned that there is no formal criterion that can be used for the definition of it, though it may mean simply that two words or more come together used as one lexical item, like “dustbin”.

1.84.What is blending, abbreviation and back formation?

(1)”Blending” is a relatively complex form of compounding in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots, e.g., smog→smoke+fog, boatel→boat+hotel, etc.

(2)”Abbreviation”, also called in some cases “clipping”, means that a word that seems unnecessarily long is shortened, usually by clipping either the front or the back part of it, e.g., telephone→phone, professor→prof., etc.

Broadly speaking, abbreviation includes acronyms that are made up from the first letters of the long name of an organization, e.g., World Bank→WB, European Economic Community→EEC, etc. Other examples of acronyms can be found with terminologies, to be read like one word, e.g., radio detecting and ranging→radar []. Test of English as a Foreign Language→TOEFL [], etc.

(3)“Back-formation” refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by detecting an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language. It is a special kind of metanalyais, combined with analogical creation (see 1.85), e.g., editor→edit, enthusiasm→enthuse, etc.

1.85.What is analogical creation? What is borrowing?

The process of “analogical creation”, as one of the English tendencies in English word-formation, refers to the phenomenon that a new word or a new phrase is coined by analogy between a newly created one and an existing one. For example, “marathon” appeared at the First Olympic Games and by analogy modern English created such words as “telethon”, “talkthon”, etc. Analogy may create single words(e.g., sunrise-moonrise, earthrise, etc.; earthquake-starquake, youthquake, etc.) and phrases( e.g., environmental pollution-sound pollution, air pollution, cultural pollution,etc.).

“Borrowing” means the English language borrowed words from foreign languages, which fall in four categories: aliens, denizens, translation-loans and semantic borrowings.

“Aliens” are foreign loans that still keep their alien shapes, i. e., morphological and phonological features, e.g., “elite”, “coup dｅtat”, “coupｅ”, etc.(from French). “Deniens” , also foreign words, have transformed their foreign appearance, i.e., they have been Angolcized (or Americanized), e. g., “get” (a Scandinavian borrowing), “theater” (a French loan), etc. “Hybrids” are also denizens, because they are words made up of two parts both from foreign soil, such as “sociology” (“socio-” from French and –logy from Greek).

“Translation-loans” are words imported by way of translation, e. g., “black humor” from French(“humor noir”), “found object” form French ,too (“object trouve”), etc. Finally, semantic borrowings have acquired new meaning under the influence of language or languages other than the source tongue. For example, “gift” mean “the price of a wife ” in Old English (450-1150AD), and after the semantic borrowing of the meaning of “gift or present” of the Scandinavian term “gipt”, it meant and still means “gift” in the modern sense of it.

1.86.What is assimilation, dissimilation and metathesis?

(1)    “Assimilation” refers to change of a sound as the result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. The assimitative processes at word in language could be explained by the “theory of least effort” ,i.e., in speaking we tend to exert as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. In expressions such as “immobile” , “illegal”, etc., the negative prefixes should be or have been “in-” etymologically.

(2)    “Dissimilation”, opposite of assimilation, is the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another sound, so that the sounds become less alike than expected. As there are two[r] sounds in the Latin word “peregrines”, for instance, the first segment had to dissimilate into[l], hence the English word “pilgrim”.

(3)    “Metathesis” is a process involving an alteration in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had originally been a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community. For instance, the word “bird” was “bird” in Old English. The word “ask” used to be pronounced [ask] in Old English, as still occurs in some English dialects.

(3)    “Case” identifies the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence. In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”,etc. In English, the case category is realized in three ways: by following a preposition and by word order.

1.58.What is concord? What is government?

“Concord ” may be defined as requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories, e.g., “man runs”, “men run”. “Government” requires that one word of a particular class in a given syntactic class shall exhibit the form of a specific category. In English, government applies only to pronouns among the variable words ,that is , prepositions and verbs govern particular forms of the paradigms of pronouns according to their syntactic relation with them, e.g. ,  “I helped him; he helped me.”

1.59.What is a phrase? What is a clause?

(1)    A “phrase” is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of “clauses”. Traditionally, it is seen as part of a structural hierachy, falling between a clause and word, e.g., “the three tallest girls” (nominal phrase). There is now a tendency to make a distinction between word groups and phrases. A “word group” is an extension of a word of a particular class by way of modification with its main features of the class unchanged. Thus we have nominal group, verbal group, adverbial group, conjunction group and preposition group.

(2)    A “clause” is group of words with its own subject and predicate included in a larger subject-verb construction, namely, in a sentence. Clauses can also be classified into two kinds: finite and non-finite clauses, the latter referring to what are traditionally called infinitive phrase, participle phrase and gerundial phrase. (For “sentence”, see I.51.)

1.60.What is conjoining? What is embedding? What is recursiveness?

“Conjoining” refers to a construction where one clause is co-ordinated or conjoined with another, e. g., “John bought a cat and his wife killed her.” “Embedding” refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (or main clause) in syntactic subordination, e.g., “I saw the man who had killed a chimpanzee.” By “recursiveness” we mean that there is theoretically no limit to the number of the embedded clauses in a complex sentence. This is true also with nominal and adverbial clauses, e.g., “I saw the man who killed a cat who…a rat which…that…”

1.61.What is hypotactic relation? What is paratactic relation?

“Hypotactic relation” refers to a construction where constituents are linked by means of conjunction, e.g. “He bought eggs and milk.” “Paratactic relation” refers to constructions which are connected by juxtaposition, punctuation or intonation, e. g., “He bought tea, coffee, eggs and milk” (pay attention to the first three nouns connected without “and”).

1.62.What is semantics?

“Semantics” refers to the study of the communication of meaning through language. Or simply, it is the study of meaning.

1.63.What is meaning?

Though it is difficult to define, “meaning” has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in  a system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what the symbol user believes he is referring to; (8) what the symbol interpreter refers to; (9) what the symbol interpreter believes it refers to; (10) what the symbol interpreter believes the user refers to… linguists argued about “meaning of meaning” fiercely in the result of “realism”, “conceptualism/mentalism”, “mechanism”, “contextualism”, “behaviorism”, “functionalism”, etc. (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp140-142). Mention ought to be made of the “Semantic Triangle Theory” of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and the listener knows what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same concept/reference of the word used and of the object/referent.

1.64.What is the difference­­­­­­­ between meaning, concept, connotation, sense, implication, denotation, notation, reference, implicature and signification?

(1)    “Meaning” refers to the association of language symbols with the real word. (2) “Concept” or “notion” is the impression of objects in people’s mind. (3) “connotation” is the implied meaning ,similar to “implication” and “implicature”. (4) “Sense” is the lexical position in which a word finds itself. (5) “Denotation”, like “sense”, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world. (6) “Reference” is the word-object relationship. (7) “Implicature”, in its narrow sense, refers to conversational implicature achieved by intentionally violating one of the four CP maxims (see I.122-123). (8) “Signification”, in contrast with “value”, mean the meaning of situation may not have any communicative value, like “What’s this?”

1.65.What is the Semantic/Semiotic Triangle?

Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the following diagram, in which the “symbol” or “form” refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and “thought” or “reference” refers to concept or notion. Thus, the symbol a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept”, associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The “concept” thus considered is meaning of the word.

1.66.What is contextualism?

“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatio-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features.

The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.

1.67.How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?

(1)    C.C.Fries(1952) makes a traditional distinction between lexical meaning and structural meaning. The former is expressed by those “meaningful” parts of speech, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and is given in the dictionary associated with grammar. The latter expresses the distinction between the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense the number, and the difference between statements, questions and requests. In a word, “the total linguistic meaning of any utterance consists of the lexical meaning of the separate words plus such structural meaning…”

(2)    G. Leech(1981) categorizes seven kinds of meaning, five of which are brought under the “associative meaning” (see the following chart).

(3)    Different from the traditional and the functional approach, F.R.Palmer(1981) and J.Lyons(1977) suggest we draw a distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning, the former being directly predictable from the grammatical and lexical features of the sentence, while the latter includes all the various types of meaning not necessarily associated thereto.

1.68.What is synonymy?

“Synonymy” is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers (lexicographers) rely on the existence of synonymy for their definitions. Some semanticians maintain, however, that there are no real synonyms, because two or more words named synonyms are expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects:

(1)    In shades of meaning (e.g., finish, complete, close, conclude, terminate, finalize, end, etc.);

(2)       In stylistic meaning(see 1.67);

(3)       In emotive meaning(or affective meaning, see 1.67);

(4)       In range of use (or collocative meaning, see 1.67);

(5)       In British and American English usages [e.g., autumn (BrE), fall (AmE)].

Simeon Potter said,“ Language is like dress. We vary our dress to suit the occasion. We do not appear at a friend’s silver-wedding anniversary in gardening clothes, nor do we go punting on the river in a dinner-jacket.” This means the learning lf synonyms is important to anyone that wishes to use his language freely and well.

1.69.What is Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there?

The term “antonymy” is used for oppositions of meaning; words that stand opposite in meaning are called “antonyms”, or opposites, which fall in there categories:(1)gradable antonyms(e.g, good-bad); (2)complementary antonyms(e.g., single-mar-ried); (3)relational antonyms(e.g., buy-sell).

1.70.What is hyponymy? What is a hyponym? What is superordinate?

“Hyponymy” involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when X id a kind of Y, the lower term X is the “hyponym”, and the upper term Y is the “superordinate”. Two or more hyponyms sharing the same one superordinate are called “co-hyponyms”. For example, “flower” is the superordinate of “tulip”, “violet” and “rose”, which are the co-hyponyms of “flower”.

1.71.What is polysemy? What is homonymy?

“Polysemy” refers to the semantic phenomenon that a word may have than one meaning. For example, “negative”, means(1)a statement saying or meaning “no”, (2)a refusal or denial, (3)one of the following words and expressions: no, not, nothing, never, not at all, etc. ,(4) a negative photograph or film. But we can sometimes hardly tell if a form has several meanings or it is a different word taking this form; hence the difference between polysemy and homonymy.

1.72.What is entailment?

“Entailment” can be illustrated by the following two sentences, with Sentence A entailing Sentence B:

A: He married a blonde heiress.

B: He married a blonde.

In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences:(1) When A is true, B is necessarily true;(2) When B is false, too;(3) when A is false, B may be true or false ;(4) When B is true, A may be true or false. Entailment is basically a semantic relation or logical implication, but we have to assume co-reference of “He” in sentence A and sentence B, before we have A entail B.

1.73.What is presupposition?

Similar to entailment, “presupposition” is a semantic relationship or logical connection. The above-mentioned “When phrase No.1”is also true with presupposition. For example:

A: The girl he married was an heiress.

B: He married a girl.

But there is an important difference: Presupposition is not subject to negation, i.e., when A is false, B is still true. Other statements about the truth value in presupposition are:(1) When B is true, A can either be true or false;(2) When B is false, A has no truth value at all. Presupposition does not have to be found between two propositions. An example in point is :“ When did you stop beating your wife?” This presupposes that he has been beating his wife.

1.74.What is componential analysis?

“Componential analysis” defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. For example, we may “clip” the following words “Man”, “Woman”, “Boy” and “Girl” so that we have only separate parts of them.

Man: +Human+Adult+Male

Woman:+Human+Adult-Male

Boy:+Human-Adult+Male

Girl:+Huamn-Adult-Male

1.75.What is predication analysis? What is a one-place predicate? What is a two-place predicate? What is a no-place predicate? What are down-graded predications?

“Predication analysis” is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. “Predication” is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate (relation element). The “predicate” is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. We may now distinguish a “two-place predicate” (which governs two arguments, e.g., subject and object), a “one-place predicate” (which governs one argument, i.e., subject) and a “no-place predicate” that has simply no argument(no real subject or object).

1.76.What is a logical operator?

(1)“Logical operator ” make only one kind of the “logical factors” or “logical means”, others being “definiteness”, “ coreference ”, “tense” and “time”, since predication is not the whole of a sentence or proposition. All these factors play a part in prepositional actualization of the predication ---the pining of a predication down a claim about reality.

(2)Example of logical operators are “not”, “and”, “or”, “some”, “if”, “false”, etc. The term “logical operation” reflects the fact that these meaning elements are often thought of as performing operations, controlling elements of the semantic system, so to speak.

1.77.Why is writing important? Why is speech considered prior to writing?

(1)Language can take the form of speech or writing, the former using sound as medium and the latter employing visual symbols. No one could tell when mankind first spoke; nor could people tell when mankind developed the first writing. A writing system consists of a graphemes plus characteristic features of their use, resulting in the diversion of the writing forms; word writing, syllabic writing and sound writing.

(2)It is widely considered that speech is the primary medium, and writing the secondary medium. But this comparative diminution does not mean that writing is unimportant. With the shot-lived memory and the finite capacity of information storing, writing is used, partly for compensation and partly for better communication. We cannot trust the negotiation counterpart so we turn to the writing and signing of an agreement. Writing leads people to the acme of science, study and research, and to the ultimate joy of literature

1.78.What is a pictogram? What is an ideogram?

(1)A “pictogram” refers to an inscription representing the features of a physical object. The Hebrew and the Chinese orthography still reflects traces of their pictorial origin. For instance, the letter “a” (aleph) imitates the head of an ox and the letter “b” (beth) imitates a horse. And “niｕ”, “mǎ”, “hǔ”and hundreds more of Chinese words derived from, and still keep the pictorial resemblance to, the shapes of the things or objects.

(2)The advantage of pictograms is that they can be easily understood by anyone. That explains why international road signs and public-toilet signs make a wide use of them.

(1)    An “ideogram” means an idea picture or idea writing. In order to express the attribute of an object or concepts associated with it, the pictogram’s meaning had to be extended. For instance, a picture of the sun does not necessarily represent the object itself, but connotes “warmth”, “heat”, “light”, “daytime”, etc. In spite of its disadvantages, the later form of ideograms turned out to be linguistic symbols, symbols for the sounds of these objects. The process is called the “Rebus Principle” indicating that writing is like a riddle composed of words or syllables depicted by symbols or pictures that suggest the sound of the words or syllables they represent.

1.79.What is word writing? What is sound writing? What is syllabic writing?

(1)Word writing refers to the writing system based on ideograms and/or pictograms, like Chinese (see 1.78). “Sound writing ” or “alphabetic writing”, which dominates the world, derived form the Latin alphabet with mild adjustments. Most of the European alphabets belong to the sound writing system, e.g., Spanish, German, French, English, etc.

(2)“Syllabic writing” is a word-syllabus writing, developed by the Egyptians. Japanese is a typical syllabic-writing language, though derived from Chinese, a Sino-Tibetan language. The Japanese modified the Chinese characters they had borrowed from ancient China so that the Japanese syllables(to the number of fifty) were each represented, either by what is called “hiragana” or by what is name “katakana”.

第一章  语言的性质

语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章       语言学

语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章       语音学

发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章      音位学

音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章     词法学

词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章     词汇学

词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章  句法

句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章    语义学

语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章    语言变化

语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；

第十章  语言、思维与文化

语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章  语用学

语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics

《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答

1.1. What is language?

“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.

1.2. What are design features of language?

“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability

1.3. What is arbitrariness?

By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.

1.4.What is duality?

Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.

1.5.What is productivity?

Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).

1.6.What is displacement?

“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.

1.7.What is cultural transmission?

This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.

1.8.What is interchangeability?

(1)    Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.

(2)    Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.

1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?

First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2-8). Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p.8).

Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.

Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)

1.10.What functions does language have?

Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396).